Link for Learning theories

Miscellaneous Sites

1. ACT Research Home Page- The ACT group is led by John Anderson at Carnegie Mellon University and is concerned with the ACT theory and architecture of cognition. The goal of this research is to understand how people acquire and organize knowledge and produce intelligent behavior. The ACT-R unified theory of cognition attempts to develop a cognitive architecture that can perform in detail a full range of cognitive tasks. The architecture takes the form of a computer simulation which is capable of performing and learning from the same tasks worked on by human subjects in our laboratories.
2. Adult Learning: An Overview- Stephen Brookfield
3. Albert Bandura — Dr. C. George Boeree, at Shippensburg University, provides a short biography of Albert Bandura, describes some of the early research in social learning, defines many of the key terms and concepts.
4. Animal Training at Sea World — How  Sea World trainers apply operant conditioning principles  to train performing animals.  Primary and conditioned reinforcers, shaping, and observational learning are among the principles that are discussed.
5. B. F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning — A brief summary of operant conditioning.
6. Bloom et. al - Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives
7. Classical Conditioning - West Virginia University
8. Cognitive Architectures
9. Cognitive Psychology - Muskingum College, New Concord, Ohio
10. COGPRINTS: Cognitive Sciences Eprint Archive - An electronic archive for papers in any area of Psychology, Neuroscience, and Linguistics, and many areas of Computer Science (e.g., artificial intelligence, robotics, vison, learning, speech, neural networks), Philosophy (e.g., mind, language, knowledge, science, logic), Biology (e.g., ethology, behavioral ecology, sociobiology, behaviour genetics, evolutionary theory), Medicine (e.g., Psychiatry, Neurology, human genetics, Imaging), Anthropology (e.g., primatology, cognitive ethnology, archeology, paleontology), as well as any other portions of the physical, social and mathematical sciences that are pertinent to the study of cognition.
11. Collins' Cognitive Theory of Inquiry Teaching  - University of Arkansas
12. Collaborative learning and the Internet - Pierre Dillenbourg and Daniel Schneider, School of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland
13. Collaborative Learning and Veterinary Medicine - Too many faculty members in our Colleges of Veterinary Medicine are not really able to distinguish between lecturing and teaching. Too often the college classroom is a place where students are bombarded with facts from the podium that they frantically try to copy down in their notes. Louis Schmier, a professor at Valdosta State University, emphasizes the point this way: "there really is a hell of a difference between a teacher and a classroom presenter." Schmier summarizes where college pedagogy is today as follows: "Most people think that anyone can teach. All you have to do is stand at the head of the classroom, throw out crumbs of information in an automated lecture, and the students will eagerly peck away and nourish their minds. I call that schooling, not education; lecturing, not teaching. Our graduate schools train scholars and researchers who are thrown into classrooms without guidance. It's little wonder that most of us evolve into classroom presenters."
14. Collaborative Learning Using Guided Discovery on the INTERNET - Peter Holt, Claude Fontaine, Jane Gismondi, Darlene Ramsden,  Centre for Computing Information Systems and Mathematics (CCISM), Athabasca University
15. Contingencies R US   -  Paul Brandon's page with links to behavioral analysis sites.
16. Cooperative Learning - This Education Research Consumer Guide is produced by the Office of Research, Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) of the U.S. Department of Education.
17. Dr. P's Dog Training - virtual library of info about dog training & behavior
18. Engagement Theory: A Framework for Technology Based Learning - Greg Kearsley & Ben Shneiderman
19. Flexible Learning and Higher Education Resources - Anglia College, UK
20. Gropper's Behaviorism - Univeristy of Arkansas
21. Human Cognition in the Human Brain - Yehouda Harpaz
22. Humanoid Robotics Group - MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
23. Institute for Research in Cognitive Science - National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center for Research in   Cognitive Science.
24. Instructional Technology Research Online - Georgia State University
25. John Case's Computational Learning Theory(COLT) Page - University of Delaware
26. John Locke - Some Thoughts Concerning Education
27. Kant's System of Perspecives   - by Stephen Palmquist
28. Kurt Lewin - The Kurt Lewin Institute is a joint venture of senior researchers in social  psychology and its applications, who are affiliated to five Dutch Universities.
29. Landa's Algo-Heuristic Theory - University of Arkansas
30. Language and the Mind   - Noam Chomsky (1968))
31. Learning Concepts -  Anxiety, Arousal, Attention, Attitudes, Cognitive/Learning Styles, Creativity, Feedback/Reinforcement,Imagery, Learning Strategies, Mastery, Memory, Mental Models, Metacognition, Motivation, Productions, Schema,Sequencing of Instruction, Taxonomies
32. Learning Theories - Funderstanding
33. Linguistics Resources - A topically organized list of resources elsewhere on the Internet that may be of interest to the linguist.
34. Merrill's Component Display Theory
35. Misha the Toilet-trained Wonder Cat — Tired of cleaning that smelly old litter box?   Learn How to Toilet-Train Your Catwith a little help from this unusual site.  Karawynn is not a behavioral psychologist, so you will have to provide the learning theory terminology.
36. Motivational Theory - University of Arkansas
37. Negative Reinforcement University — NRU is an interactive environment for the study of negative reinforcement, one of the more challenging concepts to teach and learn in Psychology. Available as either a web site (you will need the free Shockwave, below ) or as an Adobe Acrobat document (you will need the free Adobe Acrobat Reader, below).
38. Neurosciences on the Internet - A searchable and browsable index of neuroscience resources available on the Internet: Neurobiology, neurology, neurosurgery, psychiatry, psychology, cognitive science sites and information on human neurological diseases.
39. Observational Learning — A brief summary of Bandura's Observational Learning Theory.
40. Operant Conditioning and Behaviorism — An historical outline that begins with Thorndike's trial-and-error learning, and introduces Pavlov's  classical  conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning.
41. Pedagogically-informed Networking -  Deborah Lynn Stirling
42. Personal Construct Psychology - The Centre for Personal Construct Psychology is a major focal point for information and resources about George Kelly's Personal Construct Psychology.
43. Personality Theory - Northwestern University
44. Positive Reinforcement — Lyle K. Grant, at Athabasca University, has developed this tutorial to help students understand what constitutes, and what does not constitute, positive reinforcement.  Be sure you understand the illustrative examples before you begin the practice exercise.
45. Problem-Based Teaching - R. J. Salvador, D. W. Countryman and B. E. Miller
46. Psych Web's List of Psychology Resources
47. Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory - University of Arkansas
48. Rousseau - Émile - The on-line English translation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile or On Education, one of the most influential books in the history of education.
49. Rousseau - Émile The Creed of a Savoyard Priest
50. Rousseau on Education   - Michele Erina Doyle and Mark Smith
51. Scandura's Structural Theory - Scandura's Structural theory replaces the behaviorist chaining process with a cognitive orientated structure.
52. Script Theory (R. Schank) - "The central focus of Schank's theory has been the structure of knowledge, especially in the context of language understanding."
53. Sensation and Perception Tutorial - Hanover, "Here is a small collection of tutorials and demonstrations related to our senses."
54. Systems Approach to Training - Big Dog's Human Resource Development Page
55. The "Theory Into Practice - TIP database
56. The Commonwealth of Learning- The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by Commonwealth Heads of Government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL works with Commonwealth nations to improve access to quality education and training.
57. The Education and Resource Network - The American Educational Research Association
58. The Idea of the Theory of Knowledge as Social Theory - Jürgen Habermas (1968)
59. The Teaching/Learning Process: A Discussion of Models- Deborah A. McIlrath and William G. Huitt
60. The Theory Into Practice Database - "TIP is a tool intended to make learning and instructional theory more accessible to educators. The database contains brief summaries of 50 major theories of learning and instruction. These theories can also be accessed by learning domains and concepts."
61. Uncertainty Reduction Links
62. Using Cooperative Learning Groups - University of California, Santa Barbara
63. Vision and Color Vision Phenomena - The Exploratorium, San Francisco, Ca
64. Vygotsky's Social Development Theory — A brief summary of Vygotshy's theory.
65. Vygotsky and Social Cognition — A brief summary of Vygotshy's theory.
66. What is Activity Theory? - Martin Ryder, CUDenver

Anchored Instruction

1. Anchored Instruction   - "Anchored instruction requires putting the students in the context of a problem-based story. The students "play" an authentic role while investigating the problem, identifying gaps to their knowledge, researching the information needed to solve the problem, and developing solutions. For example, the students play the role of a pilot to learn about aeronautics subject matter such as gravity, airflow, weather concepts, and basic flight dynamics. The teacher facilitates and coaches the students through the process."
2. Anchored Instruction - TIP Database, John Bransford & the CTGV
3. Anchored Instruction -  Open Learning Technology Corporation Limited
4. Anchored Instruction - Julie Barbadillo, EMC 598, Arizona State University, Summer 1998
5. Anchored Instruction  - Open Learning Technology Corporation Limited.
6. Anchored Instruction - National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum
7. Anchored Instruction - The University of New England, NSW, Australia
8. Anchored instruction - Vanderbilt University
9. Anchored Instruction  - William R. Booth
10. Technological Support for Anchored Instruction - Candyce Williams Glaser & Linda K. Prestidge
11. The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury - Vanderbilt

Dual Coding Theory

1. A Simulation about Multimedia Design and Dual-Coding Theory - Authorware 5.1 Web Player requireed for this simulation
2. Constructing Cognitive Artefacts: The Case of Multimedia Learning Materials - Christopher J. Colbourn, Department of Psychology, University of Southampton
3. Dual-coding theory - Instructional Technology Global Resource Network
4. Dual Coding Theory and Visualization - University of Iceland
5. Dual-Coding, Context-Availability, and Concreteness Effects in Sentence Comprehension: An Electrophysiological Investigation - Phillip J. Holcomb, John Kounios, Jane E. Anderson, W. Caroline West

John Dewey

1. A Dialog between Confucius and Dr. John Dewey - Lih-Ching Chen Wang
2. Center for John Dewey Studies - The Center for Dewey Studies at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale was established in 1961 as the "Dewey Project." In the course of collecting and editing Dewey's works, the Center  amassed a wealth of source materials for the study of America's quintessential  philosopher-educator, John Dewey. By virtue of its publications and research, the Center has become the international focal point for research on Dewey's life and work. Its location at the University makes it possible for visitors to take advantage of the resources and professional  expertise of the faculty and staff of the Department of Philosophy, the College of Education, Special Collections in Morris Library, and the Southern Illinois University Press.
3. Cognitivism, Situated Cognition, and Deweyian Pragmatism   - by Eric Bredo
4. Constructivism, Educational Research, and John Dewey   - by Raf Vanderstraeten and Gert Biesta
5. Dewey on the Pedagogy of Occupations: The social construction of the hyper-real- by James Palermo
6. Dewey Reconstructs Ethics -  by Dr. Jan Garrett
7. Dewey's Idea of Sympathy and the Development of the Ethical Self: A Japanese Perspective- by Naoko Saito
8. Essays on the Philosophy of John Dewey - by Gordon L. Ziniewicz
9. John Dewey & F. Mathias Alexander Homepage -Dewey met Alexander in during World War I when Alexander was visiting New York and had his first lessons from Alexander at that time. Dewey was then in his fifties, and he continued taking Alexander Technique lessons for the next 35 years.
10. John Dewey & the Alexander Technique - "It [the F.M. Alexander Technique] bears the same relation to education that education itself bears to all other human activities." --John Dewey
11. John Dewey and Informal Education - "Arguably the most influential thinker on education in the twentieth century, Dewey's contribution lies along several fronts. His attention to experience and reflection, democracy and community, and to environments for learning have been seminal."
12. John Dewey and Progressive Education   - by David Wiles
13. John Dewey at Michigan: The Birth of Pragmatism: The Philosopher's second An Arbor Period - by Linda Robinson
14. John Dewey: Democracy and Education - The 1916 Book in HTML markup copyright 1994 ILT Digital Classics.
15. John Dewey: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Life and Works, Theory of Knowledge, Metaphysics, Ethical and Social Theory, Aesthetics, Critical Reception and Influence, Bibliography
16. John Dewey: Rethinking Our Time - Reviewed by James Garrison
17. John Dewey: The Quest for Certainty (1933)
18. John Dewey's Critique of Socioeconomic Individualism - by S. Scott Zeman
19. John Dewey's participatory philosophy of education: Education, experience and curriculum . - Joop W.A. Berding
20. The Educational Theory of John Dewey (1859 - 1952) . - Analyst: N. I. Emand

Behaviorism

1. A laboratory study of fear: The case of Peter. Pedagogical Seminary, 31, 308-315. Jones, Mary Cover. (1924).
2. A new formula for behaviorism. Psychological Review, 29, 44-53. Tolman, Edward C. (1922).
3. An Overview of Dialectical Behavioural Therapy for BPD - MHN Article
4. Animal intelligence. Thorndike, Edward L. (1911).
5. Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review, 57, 193-216. Skinner, B. F. (1950).
6. Autobiography of C. Lloyd Morgan. In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 2, pp. 237-264). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press. Morgan, C. Lloyd. (1930).
7. Autobiography of Robert M. Yerkes. In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 2, pp. 381-407). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press. Yerkes, Robert M. (1930).
8. Basic neural mechanisms in behavior. Psychological Review, 37, 1-24. Lashley, Karl S. (1930).
9. Behavior Analysis Resources - A list of related links.
10. Behavior and the concept of mental disease. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, 13, 589-597. Watson, John B. (1916).
11. Behaviorism Tutorial - Athabasca University
12. Behaviorism: The Rise and Fall of a Discipline - Behavior theory, while still viable, no longer holds the dominance it once did in theoretical psychology.
13. Behaviorists for Social Responsibility.Behaviour Online- "Behavior OnLine aspires to be the premier World Wide Web gathering place for mental health professionals and applied behavioral scientists"
14. Behavioural Temperaments- "Welcome! This Page is about behavioral individuality in infants, children and adults. It is intended as a clearinghouse for research and practical information about temperamental characteristics to be used by parents, students, professionals and others who have an interest in temperament."
15. Classical Conditioning - An Article.
16. Classical Conditioning - State University, Cortland, NY
17. Classical Conditioning - Steve's Primer of Practical Persuasion and Influence
18. Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189-208. Tolman, Edward, C. (1948).
19. Commentary on "Psychology as the Behaviorist View It" John B. Watson (1913) - by Robert H. Wozniak
20. Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1-14. Watson, John B. & Rayner, Rosalie. (1920).
21. Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). (Original work published 1927)Pavlov, Ivan P. (1927).
22. Connectionism (Thorndike) -TIP Database
23. Dialectical Behavioral Therapy - "Marsha Linehan (1991) pioneered this treatment, based on the idea that psychosocial treatment of those with Borderline Personality Disorder was as important in controlling the condition as traditional psycho- and pharmacotherapy were."
24. Ding-Dong: Classical Conditioning. Pavlov and Pavlov's Dog . - West Virginia University
25. Drive Reduction Theory - Theory Into Practice Database
26. Drives and the C.N.S. (conceptual nervous system). Psychological Review, 62, 243-254. Hebb, D. O. (1955).
27. Factors Determining the Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning - Unoveristy of Vermont
28. From Behaviorism to Humanism - Elmira College
29. FunderstandingHull’s Drive Reduction Theory - Theory Into Practice Database
30. Has psychology failed? American Scholar, 4, 261-269. Jastrow, Joseph. (1935).
31. Introduction to Animal Intelligence.  Edward Lee Thorndike (1911) by R. H. Wozniak.
32. Introduction to: Introduction to: "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it." John B. Watson (1913) - by Christopher D. Green.
33. Introduction"A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter" Mary Cover Jones (1924) by Alexandra Rutherford.
34. Introspection as an objective method. Psychological Review, 29, 89-112. Washburn, Margaret Floy. (1922).
35. Is thinking merely the action of language mechanisms? British Journal of Psychology, 11, 87-104. Watson, John B. (1920).
36. Neobehaviorism Logical Positivism, Operationalism, and Physicalism . Study Notes.
37. On "Psychology as the behaviorist views it". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 53, 1-17. Titchener, Edward B. (1914).
38. On two types of conditioned reflex. Journal of General Psychology, 16, 264-272. Konorski, J. & Miller, S. (1937).
39. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning - W. Huitt and J. Hummel
40. Operant Conditioning - Cortland College
41. Operant Conditioning and Behaviorism - A Historical Outline TheoriesPositive Reinforcement -  Athabasca University
42. Psychological facts and psychological theory. Psychological Bulletin, 43, 1-20. Guthrie, Edwin R. (1946).
43. Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177 Watson, John B. (1913).
44. 'Superstition' in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172. Skinner, B. F. (1948).
45. The battle of behaviorism: An exposition and an exposure. Watson, John B. & MacDougall, William. (1929).
46. The Behavior Analysis Home Page - University of South Florida
47. The Behavioral Approach - Cortland College
48. The behavioristic interpretation of consciousness. Psychological Bulletin, 30, 237-272, 329-353. Lashley, Karl S. (1923).
49. The case against introspection. Psychological Review, 19, 404-413. (1912).Dunlap, Knight.
50. The concept of the habit-family hierarchy and maze learning: Part I. Psychological Review, 41, 33-54. Hull, Clark L. (1934).
51. The concept of the habit-family hierarchy and maze learning: Part II. Psychological Review, 41, 134-152. Hull, Clark L. (1934).
52. The conflicting psychologies of learning -- A way out.Psychological Review, 42, 491-516. Hull, Clark L. (1935).
53. The method of Pawlow in animal psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 6, 257-273. Yerkes, Robert M. & Morgulis, Sergius. (1909).
54. The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist, 16, 681-684. Breland, Keller & Breland, Marian. (1961).
55. The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13, 573-685. Harlow, Harry F. (1958).
56. The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Yerkes, Robert M. & Dodson, John D. (1908). Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18, 459-482.
57. The Relationship of Behaviorism, Neo-Behaviorism and Cognitivism to an Evangelical Bibliology . - by Greg Herrick Watson's career and work. The article also presents a history of psychologists' accounts of the Albert study, focusing on the study's distortion by Watson himself, general textbook authors, behavior therapists, and most recently, a prominent learning theorist. The author proposes possible causes for these distortions and analyzes the Albert study as an example of myth making in the history of psychology."
58. Two types of conditioned reflex and a pseudo type. Journal of General Psychology, 12, 66-77. Skinner, B. F. (1935).
59. Two types of conditioned reflex: A reply to Konorski and Miller. Journal of General Psychology, 16, 272-279. Skinner, B. F. (1937).

Contiguity Theory

1. Contiguity Theory -   Open Learning Technology Corporation Limited
2. Edwin R. Guthrie--   Classics in the History of Psychology
3. Guthrie’s Contiguity Theory - by Gwendolyn Walata

Gestalt Theory

1. Classics in the History of Psychology -- Introduction to Koffka
2. Gestalt Psychology - by C. George Boeree
3. Gestalt Psychology and Gestalt Therapy - by Mary Henle (1975)
4. Gestalt Psychotherapy Institutes and Associations Worldwide
5. Gestalt Theory - An International Multidisciplinary Journal
6. In Search of the Laws of Visual Grouping -  Michael Kubovy, Alex O. Holcombe, Johan Wagemans, Jeff Hollier, Dirk Smit, Sarah Creem
7. Keywords of Gestalt Theory - The Gestalt Theory Resources Center offers information and links to other resources on the web about Gestalt theory in its original sense as put forward by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka,  Kurt Lewin and other eminent Gestalt psychologists.
8. Links to Gestalt Related Sources on the Web
9. Mach and Ehrenfels: Foundations of Gestalt Theory - by Kevin Mulligan and Barry Smith
10. Martin Buber und die Gestalttherapie (Rich Hycner) - Gestalt-Institut Köln
11. Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications
12. The historical roots of Gestalt Therapy Theory - Gestalt Dialogue: Newsletter fo the Integrative Gestalt
13. Centre, Aotearoa, New Zealand.
14. The Gestalt Archive - Full Text Gestalt Psychology Articles
15. The Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy Page
16. The Max Wertheimer Page - Society for Gestalt Theory and Its Applications
17. To Deviate or to Adapt - 13th Scientific Gestalt Theory Conference 2003
18. The Association for the Advancement of Gestalt  Therapy - by Joel Latner
19. Classics in the History of Psychology -- Koffka (1922)
20. Wolfgang Köhler - "German-American psychologist, one of the founders of Gestalt psychology with Kurt Koffka. Köhler gained fame with his studies on cognitive processing involved in problem-solving by animals. Köhler argued that animals do not learn everything through a gradual trial-and-error process, or  stimulus-response association. His tests in Tenerife in the 1910s with chimpanzees suggested that these animals solved problems by understanding - like human beings, they are capable of insight learning, the "aha!" solutions to problems. Köhler also discovered with von Restoff the isolation effect in memory,     contributed to the theory of memory and recall, and developed a non-associationist theory of the nature of associations."

Robert Gagné

1. Conditions of Learning -TIP Database
2. Gagné's Nine Instructional Events: An Introduction - by Kevin Kruse
3. Robert Gagné - by Stephen Bostock
4. Gagné's Information Processing Model and its Implications to Instructional Design- by Timothy D. Brannon

B.F. Skinner

1. Animal Trainer's Introduction to Operant & Classical Conditioning -  Stacy Braslau-Schneck This page attempts to explain Operant Conditioning, and promote the use of Positive Reinforcement and Negative Punishment  in animal training.
2. Behaviorism: Skinner and Dennett - Philosophy of Mind Curtis Brown.
3. Behaviorism, BF Skinner, Social Control, Modern Psychology - The Stimulus and the Response
4. B F Skinner - The Origins of Cognitive Thought - Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior (1989) publ. Merrill Publishing
5. B.F. Skinner Biography - C. George Boeree
6. B.F. Skinner - Operant Conditioning - QuickTime video clip of Skinner discussing his theory.
7. B.F. Skinner Foundation - Manages Skinner's literary estate, and publishes significant literary and scientific works in the analysis of behaviour. Site includes information about Skinner, his work, and life
8. BF Skinner -  (Burrhus Frederick Skinner) elaboration of the theory of reinforcement and his advocacy of its application to learning.
9. CogPrints: A Review of BF Skinner's Verbal Behavior - A Review of BF Skinner's Verbal Behavior.
10. Contingencies R US - Paul K. Brandon
11. Dr. P's - Dog Training - University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
12. Negative Reinforcement - Maricopa Community College NRU is an interactive environment for the study of negative reinforcement.
13. Operant Conditioning - TIP Database
14. Operant Conditioning and Behaviorism - an historical outline - by R.W.Kentridge
15. Operant Conditioning -TIP Database
16. Positive Reinforcement - by Lyle K. Grant, Athabasca University
17. Skinner's Defense of Behaviorism, Classic Works, Animal Learning Theory, and Utopian Societies
18. The Behavioral Approach - SUNY Cortland

Information Processing Theory

1. Applications and Misapplications of Cognitive Psychology to Mathematics Education- by John R. Anderson, Lynne M. Reder, and Herbert A. Simon Are Theories of Imagery Theories of Imagination? An Active Perception Approach to Conscious Mental Content - by Nigel J.T. Thomas
2. rnformation Processing Theory (G. Miller) - Tip Database
3. Information Theory of Claude Shannon & Warren Weaver
4. Information Processing Theory Basics - "The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding..."
5. Information Processing Theory - University of Indiana
6. Information Processing Theory - by Richard H. Hall
7. Modes of Learning   (D. Rumelhart & D. Norman)

Jean Piaget

1. A biography - Jean Piaget Archives
2. A Piaget Biography - C. George Boeree
3. Biography - The Jean Piaget Society
4. Child Psychologist: Jean Piaget - By Seymour Paper
5. Jean Piaget's Genetic Epistemology: Appreciation and Critique - by Robert L. Campbell
6. Jean Piaget - Genetic Epistemology (1968) - Philosophy Archive @ marxists.org
7. Jean Piaget's Genetic Epistemology: Appreciation and Critique - Robert L. Campbell
8. Piaget - Theory of Development - SUNY Cortland
9. The "Theory Into Practice - TIP Database
10. The Piaget Archives- Les Archives Jean Piaget
11. Time Article - "Jean Piaget, the pioneering Swiss philosopher and psychologist, spent much of his professional life listening to children, watching children and poring over reports of researchers around the world who were doing the same. He found, to put it most succinctly, that children don't think like grownups. After thousands of interactions with young people often barely old enough to talk, Piaget began to suspect that behind their cute and seemingly illogical utterances were thought processes that had their own kind of order and their own special logic. Einstein called it a discovery 'so simple that only a genius could have thought of it.' "

Lev Vygotsky

1. Beyond the Individual-Social Antimony in Discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky- Michael Cole, University of California, San Diego
2. Situated cognition and activity theory - University of Colorado at Denver
3. Situated Learning- TIP Database
4. Social Development Theory - Garry Jacobs and Harlan Cleveland
5. Social Development Theory - TIP Database
6. Vygotsky - Christine Guerra and Ricardo Schutz
7. Vygotsky - The Historical Meaning of The Crisis in Psychology: A Methodological Investigation - Written 1927
8. Vygotsky - Thinking and Speaking - Written: 1934
9. Vygotsky and Assessment - by Sam Wineburg
10. Vygotsky and education: The sociocultural genesis of dialogic thinking in classroom contexts for open-forum literature discussions - by Suzanne M. Miller
11. Vygotsky and Social Cognition — A brief summary of Vygotshy's theory.
12. Vygotsky Centennial Project- Department of Psychology, Massey University
13. Vygotsky's Distinction Between Lower and Higher Mental Functions - Eugene Subbotsky
14. Vygotsky's Social Development Theory - Elizabeth M. Riddle & Nada Dabbagh

Situated Learning

1. A Situated Cognition Perspective on Learning on Demand - William J. Clancey
2. A Tutorial on Situated Learning - William J. Clancey
3. Collaborative Knowledge Networks - A Viewpoint by Deloitte Consulting and Deloitte & Touche
4. Communities of Practice - Fred Nickols
5. Communities of practice at the core - ELearning post
6. Communities of Practice  - Department of Computer Science at the University of York
7. Designing web-bases units...situated learning - Edith Cowan University,
8. It Takes A community - Excerpt from Wenger
9. Lave, J., & Wenger
10. New Perspectives on Mentoring
11. New Ways of Learning in the Workplace
12. Organizational learning and communities-of-practice
13. Organizational learning: Wenger - 14 guidelines to help you work with rather than against the inner logic of organizational learning
14. Situated Cognition
15. Situated Learning
16. Situated Learning (J. Lave)
17. Situated Learning in Adult Education
18. Situated Learning in Adult Education  - David Stein
19. Situated learning
20. Situated Learning
21. Wenger Search results - 76 citations found. Retrieving documents.

Howard Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences

1. 7 Kinds of Smart - by James Collins
2. Adult Multiple Intelligences project (AMI) - Project Zero
3. Different Ways of Learning - Judith C. Reiff
4. Different Ways of Learning : a nice list of "what to do" for parents
5. Education World: Multiple Intelligences -- A Theory for Everyone from Education World
6. Eric Digest: Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
7. Gardner - Overview - Daniel B. Stockstill
8. Gardner - Summary - by Carla Lane
9. Multimedia & Multiple Intelligences - by Shirley Veenema and Howard Gardner
10. Multiple Intelligences - About.com
11. Multiple Intelligences - metasite
12. Multiple Intelligences: Gardner's Theory - by Amy C. Brualdi
13. New Dimensions of Learning: Exploring Multiple Intelligences - sponsored by New Dimensions of Learning

Albert Bandura and Social Learning Theory

1. A biographic profile - C. George Boeree
2. Bandura - Theory Into Practice Database - TIP Database
3. Classics in the History of Psychology - York University
4. Differential Association - This page is designed and maintained by Diane M. DeMelo.
5. Observational (Social) Learning Theory   - W. Huitt and J. Hummel
6. Social Learning Theory - TIP Database
7. Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura - (From the First Edition of A First Look at Communication Theory by Em Griffin, Ó 1991, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
8. The Power of Social Modeling: The Effects of Television Violence - by Christine Van De Velde
9. The PSI-Cafe: Bandura -  Massachusetts School of Professional Psychology
10. The Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura (book chapter)
11. Theorist Albert Bandura - Margaret Delores Isom
12. Theory Into Practice Database

Bernard Weiner

1. Attribution Theory of Fritz Heider - (From the Second Edition of A First Look at Communication Theory by Em Griffin, © 1994, 1991, McGraw-Hill, Inc. This text-only version of the article appears on the World Wide Web site www.afirstlook.com. A facsimile of the original article is also available in PDF format.)
2. Attribution Theory & Achievement - Clayton Tucker-Ladd & Mental Health Net
3. Attribution Theory in Action - West Virginia University

Cognitive Dissonance

1. An Explanation of Cognitive Dissonance Theory - General Experimental Psychology Cognitive Dissonance Lab
2. A further explanation of Cognitive Dissonance Theory - as developed by Leon Festinger
3. Cognitive Dissonance - how social influence can produce attitude changes.
4. Cognitive Dissonance Theory - TIP Database
5. Cognitive Dissonance in Decision-Making
6. Cognitive Dissonance Theory - Introductory lecture based in part on Em Griffin, A First Look at Communication theory (3rd ed.), McGraw-Hill, 1997.
7. Cognitive Dissonance Theory - by Daniel J. O'Keefe
8. Cognitive Dissonance Theory - by Elisa M. Jean
9. Communication Theory: A First Look - (From the Third  Edition of A First Look at Communication Theory by Em Griffin, Ó 1997, McGraw-Hill, Inc. This text-only version of the article appears on the World Wide Web site www.afirstlook.com. The text version does not contain any figures. A facsimile of the original article, which includes all figures,  is also available in PDF format.)
10. Sample Chapter -- Cognitive Dissonance - Eddie Harmon-Jones and Judson Mills
11. Truth Maintenance with Cognitive Dissonance - by Peter Schwartz
12. Social 1 - essay assessing Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance.

Aptitude-Treatment Interaction

1. Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (L. Cronbach & R. Snow)
2. Aptitude Treatment Interaction Research - by Barbara A. Nanney
3. Aptitude Treatment Interaction & Cognitive Style - Oklahoma State University
4. Learning styles (notes) - by Stephen W. Draper
5. Reading Research Perspectives System Behavior and the Current Educational Paradigms- Western Carolina University

Subsumtion Theory

1. Advance Organizers - Montclair State Univesity
2. David Ausubel - by Barbara Bowen
3. Subsumption Theory - Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory  experiments).

Social Judgment Theory

1. Social Judgment Theory Research - by Kindra Krebs
2. Social Judgment Theory and Working Assets
3. Social Judgment Theory - This site is designed primarily as a companion to A First Look at Communication Theory by Em Griffin and the Instructor's Manual by Glen McClish and Jacqueline "Jackie" Bacon.
4. Social Judgment Theory - University of West Virginia
5. The Social Judgment Theoryand it's Association with Advertising - Center for Interactive Advertising
6. Muzafer Sherif - one of the founders of social psychology

Cooperative Learning

1. Accounting for Individual Effort in Cooperative Learning Teams - D.B. Kaufman, R.M.Felder, and H. Fuller
2. Collaborative learning and the Internet - Pierre Dillenbourg and Daniel Schneider, School of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland
3. Collaborative Learning and Veterinary Medicine - Too many faculty members in our Colleges of Veterinary Medicine are not really able to distinguish between lecturing and teaching. Too often the college classroom is a place where students are bombarded with facts from the podium that they frantically try to copy down in their notes. Louis Schmier, a professor at Valdosta State University, emphasizes the point this way: "there really is a hell of a difference between a teacher and a classroom presenter." Schmier summarizes where college pedagogy is today as follows: "Most people think that anyone can teach. All you have to do is stand at the head of the classroom, throw out crumbs of information in an automated lecture, and the students will eagerly peck away and nourish their minds. I call that schooling, not education; lecturing, not teaching. Our graduate schools train scholars and researchers who are thrown into classrooms without guidance. It's little wonder that most of us evolve into classroom presenters."
4. Collaborative Learning Using Guided Discovery on the INTERNET - Peter Holt, Claude Fontaine, Jane Gismondi, Darlene Ramsden,  Centre for Computing Information Systems and Mathematics (CCISM), Athabasca University
5. Cooperative Learning - This Education Research Consumer Guide is produced by the Office of Research, Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) of the U.S. Department of Education.
6. Cooperative Learning Classroom Project - by Andrew M. Dahley
7. Cooperative Learning in Technical Courses: Procedures, Pitfalls, and Payoffs- R.M. Felder and R. Brent
8. Differences Between Collaborative Learning and Cooperative Learning
9. Dynamics of Peer Education in Cooperative Learning Workgroups - C.R. Haller, V.J. Gallagher, T.L. Weldon, and R.M. Felder
10. Effective Strategies for Cooperative Learning - R.M. Felder and R. Brent
11. Implementing Cooperative Learning in your classroom
12. IASCE -  International Association for the Study of Cooperation in Education
13. Kagan Cooperative Learning Structures - Kagan Cooperative Learning Structures
14. Mid-Atlantic Association for Cooperation in Education (MAACIE) - "This website is dedicated to promoting cooperative learning in education both K-12 and in higher education."
15. Navigating The Bumpy Road to Student-Centered Instruction - R.M. Felder and R. Brent
16. Network for Cooperative Learning in Higher Education - California State University, Dominguez Hills
17. Salmon River - GLC Eisenhower Project
18. Sheridan College School of Community Services - Cooperative Learning Network
19. Southwest Educational Development laboratory
20. Teaching and Learning Methods and Strategies - University of Arizona

Copy from : http://www.emtech.net/learning_theories.htm

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Teori Belajar Robert Gagne (1916-2002)

Robert Mills Gagné (August 21, 1916– April 28, 2002) was an American educational psychologist best known for his "Conditions of Learning". Gagné pioneered the science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training. Later he went on to develop a series of studies and works that helped codify what is now considered to be 'good instruction.' He was also involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer-based training and multimedia-based learning.

One of Gagné's major contributions to the theory of instruction was the model "Nine Events of Instruction".

• Gain attention
• Inform learner of objectives
• Stimulate recall of prior learning
• Present stimulus material
• Provide learner guidance
• Elicit performance
• Provide feedback
• Assess performance
• Enhance retention transfer

Gagné's work is sometimes summarized as the Gagné Assumption. The assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that different instructional conditions are most likely to bring about these different types of learning.

"Learning is something that takes place inside
a person's head- in the brain"

Robert Gagne lahir tahun 1916 di North Andover, MA. Beliau mendapatkan gelar A.B. pada Yale tahun 1937 dan pada tahun 1940 mendapat gelar Ph.D. dalam Psychology dari Universitas Brown. Mengajar pada ConnecticutCollege for Women dari 1940-49 dan kemudian pada PennStateUniversity dari 1945-1946. Antara 1949-1958, Gagne menjadi direktur “perceptual and motor skills laborartory” dari U.S. Air force. Pada saat itu dia mulai mengembangkan beberapa idenya yaitu teori belajar yang disebut

"The Conditions of Learning".

Pada 25 tahun terakhir beliau adalah professor pada Department of Education Research at Florida State University di Tallahassee.

Gagne melihat proses belajar mengajar dibagi menjadi beberapa komponen penting yaitu :

1.     Fase – fase pembelajaran

2.    Kategori utama kapabilitas/kemampuan manusia/outcomes

3.     Kondisi atau tipe pembelajaran

4.     Kejadian-kejadian instruksional

Robert Gagne seorang ahli psikologi pendidikan mengembangkan teori belajar yang mencapai kulminasinya pada “The Condition of Learning”. Banyak gagasan Gagne tentang teori belajar, seperti belajar konsep dan model pemrosesan informasi, pada bukunya “The Condition of Learning” Gagne membahas tentang fase-fase dalam belajar, kapabilitas manusia yang dihasilkan setelah belajar (outcomes), kondisi atau tipe pembelajaran (the eight conditions learning) dan kejadian-kejadian belajar (nine intructional events), serta hubungan kejadian-kejadian tersebut.

A.   Fase-fase dalam belajar

        Gagne membagi proses belajar berlangsung dalam empat fase utama, yaitu: (1) receiving the stimulus situation (apprehending), (2) stage of acquisition, (3) storage, (4) retrieval.

1.   Fase Receiving the stimulus situation (apprehending), merupakan fase seseorang memperhatikan stimulus tertentu kemudian menangkap artinya dan memahami stimulus tersebut untuk kemudian ditafsirkan sendiri dengan berbagai cara. Misalnya “golden eye” bisa ditafsirkan sebagai jembatan di amerika atau sebuah judul film. Stimulus itu dapat spontan diterima atau seorang Guru dapat memberikan stimulus agar siswa memperhatikan apa yang akan diucapkan.

2.    Fase Stage of Acquition, pada fase ini seseorang akan dapat memperoleh suatu kesanggupan yang belum diperoleh sebelumnya dengan menghubung-hubungkan informasi yang diterima dengan pengetahuan sebelumnya. Atau boleh dikatakan pada fase ini siswa membentuk asosiasi-asosiasi antara informasi baru dan informasi lama.

3.    Fase storage /retensi adalah fase penyimpanan informasi, ada informasi yang disimpan dalam jangka pendek ada yang dalam jangka panjang, melalui pengulangan informasi dalam memori jangka pendek dapat dipindahkan ke memori jangka panjang.

4.    Fase Retrieval/Recall, adalah fase mengingat kembali atau memanggil kembali informasi yang ada dalam memori. Kadang-kadang dapat saja informasi itu hilang dalam memori atau kehilangan hubungan dengan memori jangka panjang. Untuk lebih daya ingat maka perlu informasi yang baru dan yang lama disusun secara terorganisasi, diatur dengan baik atas pengelompokan-pengelompokan menjadi katagori, konsep sehingga lebih mudah dipanggil.

Kemudian ada fase-fase lain yang dianggap tidak utama, yaitu (5) fase motivasi sebelum pelajaran dimulai guru memberikan motivasi kepada siswa untuk belajar, (6) fase generalisasi adalah  fase transfer informasi, pada situasi-situasi baru, agar lebih meningkatkan daya ingat, siswa dapat diminta mengaplikasikan sesuatu dengan informasi baru tersebut. (7) Fase penampilan adalah fase dimana siswa harus memperlihatkan sesuatu penampilan yang nampak setelah mempelajari sesuatu, seperti mempelajari struktur kalimat dalam bahasa mereka dapat membuat kalimat yang benar, dan (8)  fase umpan balik, siswa harus diberikan umpan balik dari apa yang telah ditampilkan (reinforcement).

B.        Kategori utama kapabilitas/kemampuan manusia/outcomes

         Setelah selesai belajar, penampilan yang dapat diamati sebagai hasil belajar adalah kemampuan-kemampuan (capabilities). Kemampuan-kemampuan tersebut dibedakan berdasarkan atas kondisi mencapai kemampuan tersebut berbeda-beda. Ada lima kemampuan (kapabilitas) sebagai hasil belajar yang diberikan Gagne yaitu :

1.     Verbal Information (informasi verbal), adalah kemampuan siswa untuk memiliki keterampilan mengingat informasi verbal, ini dapat dicontohkan kemampuan siswa mengetahui benda-benda, huruf alphabet dan yang lainnya yang bersifat verbal.

2.     Intellectual skills (keterampilan intelektual), merupakan penampilan yang ditunjukkan siswa tentang operasi-operasi intelektual yang dapat dilakukannya. Keterampilan intelektual memungkinkan seseorang berinteraksi dengan lingkungannya melalui pengunaan simbol-simbol atau gagasan-gagasan. Yang membedakan keterampilan intelektual pada bidang tertentu adalah terletak pada tingkat kompleksitasnya.

          Untuk memecahkan masalah siswa memerlukan aturan-aturan tingkat tinggi yaitu aturan-aturan yang kompleks yang berisi aturan-aturan dan konsep terdefinisi, untuk memperloleh aturan – aturan ini siswa sudah harus belajar beberapa konsep konkret, dan untuk belajar konsep konkret ini siswa harus menguasai diskriminasi-diskriminasi.

3.     Cognitive strategies (strategi kognitif), merupakan sustu macam keterampilan intelektual khusus yang mempunyai kepentingan tertentu bagi belajar dan berpikir. Proses kontrol yang digunakan siswa untuk memilih dan mengubah cara-cara memberikan perhatian, belajar, mengingat dan berpikir. Beberapa strategi kognitif adalah : (1) strategi menghafal, (2) strategi elaborasi, (3) strategi pengaturan, (4) strategi metakognitif, (5) strategi afektif.

4.    Attitudes (sikap-sikap) merupakan pembawaan yang dapat dipelajari dan dapat mempengaruhi perilaku seseorang terhadap benda, kejadian atau mahluk hidup lainnya. Sekelompok sikap yang penting ialah sikap-sikap kita terhadap orang lain. Bagaimana sikap-sikap sosial itu diperoleh setelah mendapat pembelajaran itu yang menjadi hal penting dalam menerapkan metode dan materi pembelajaran.

5.     Motor skills (keterampilan motorik) merupakan keterampilan kegiatan fisik dan penggabungan kegiatan motorik dengan intelektual sebagai hasil belajar. Keterampilan motorik bukan hanya mencakup kegiatan fisik saja tapi juga kegiatan motorik dengan intelektual seperti membaca, menulis, dllnya

C.    Kondisi atau tipe pembelajaran

1.    Signal learning (belajar isyarat)

            Belajar isyarat merupakan proses belajar melalui pengalaman-pengalaman menerima suatu isyarat tertentu untuk melakukan tindakan tertentu. Misalnya ada “Aba-aba siap” merupakan isyarat untuk mengambil sikap tertentu, tersenyum merupakan isyarat perasaan senang.

2.    Stimulus-response learning  (belajar melalui stimulus-respon)

Belajar stimulus-respon (S-R), merupakan belajar atau respon tertentu yang diakibatkan oleh suatu stimulus tertentu. Melalui pengalaman yang berulang-ulang dengan stimulus tertentu sesorang akan memberikan respon yang cepat sebagai akibat stimulus tersebut.

3.    Chaining (rantai atau rangkaian)

         Chaining atau rangkaian, terbentuk dari hubungan beberapa S-R, oleh sebab yang satu terjadi segera setelah yang satu lagi. Misalnya : Pulang kantor, ganti baju, makan, istirahat.

4.    Verbal association (asosiasi verbal)

        Mengenal suatu bentuk-bentuk tertentu dan menghubungkan bentuk-bentuk rangkaian verbal tertentu. Misalnya : seseorang mengenal bentuk geometris, bujur sangkar, jajaran genjang, bola dlsbnya. Lalu merangkai itu menajdi suatu pengetahuan geometris, sehingga seseorang dapat mengenal bola yang bulat, kotak yang bujur sangkar.

5.   Discrimination learning (belajar diskriminasi)

        Belajar diskriminasi adalah dapat membedakan sesuatu dengan sesuatu yang lainnya, dapat membedakan manusia yang satu dengan manusia yang lainnya walaupun bentuk manusia hampir sama, dapat membedakan merk sepedamotor satu dengan yang lainnya walaupun bentuknya sama. Kemampuan diskriminasi ini tidak terlepas dari jaringan, kadang-kadang jika jaringan yang terlalu besar dapat mengakibatkan interferensi atau tidak mampu membedakan.

6.    Concept learning  (belajar konsep)

         Belajar konsep mungkin karena kesanggupan manusia untuk mengadakan representasi internal tentang dunia sekitarnya dengan menggunakan bahasa. Mungkin juga binatang bisa melakukan tetapi sangat terbatas, manusia dapat melakukan tanpa terbatas berkat bahasa dan kemampuan mengabstraksi. Dengan menguasai konsep ia dapat menggolongkan dunia sekitarnya menurut konsep itu misalnya : warna, bentuk, jumlah dllnya

7.    Rule learning  (belajar aturan)

       Belajar model ini banyak diterapkan di sekolah, banyak aturan yang perlu diketahui oleh setiap orang yang telah mengenyam pendidikan. Misalnya : angin berembus dari tekanan tinggi ke tekanan rendah, 1 + 1 = 2 dan lainnya. Suatu aturan dapat diberikan contoh-contoh yang konkrit.

8.    Problem solving. (memecahkan masalah)

        Memecahkan masalah merupakan suatu pekerjaan yang biasa yang dilakukan manusia. Setiap hari dia melakukan problem solving bayak sekali. Untuk memecahkan masalah dia harus memiliki aturan-aturan atau pengetahuan dan pengalaman, melalui pengetahuan aturan-aturan inilah dia dapat melakukan keputusan untuk memecahkan suatu persoalan. Seseorang harus memiliki konsep-konsep, aturan-aturan dan memiliki “sets” untuk memecahkannya dan suatu strategi untuk memberikan arah kepada pemikirannya agar ia produktif.

D.   Kejadian-kejadian instruksional

        Apakah yang terjadi dalam mengajar? Mengajar dapat kita pandang sebagai usaha mengontrol kondisi ekstern. Kondisi ekstern merupakan satu bagian dari proses belajar, namun termasuk tugas guru yang utama dalam mengajar.

Mengajar terdiri dari sejumlah kejadian-kejadian tertentu yang menurut Gagne terkenal dengan “Nine instructional events” yang dapat diuraikan sebagai berikut :

1. Gain attention (memelihara perhatian)

Dengan stimulus ekster kita berusaha membangkitkan perhatian dan motivasi siswa untuk belajar.

2. Inform learners of objectives (penjelasan tujuan pembelajaran)

Menjelaskan kepada murid tujuan dan hasil apa yang diharapkan setelah belajar. Ini dilakukan dengan komunikasi verbal.

3. Stimulate recall of prior learning (merangsang murid)

Merangsang murid untuk mengingat kembali konsep, aturan dan keterampilan yang merupakan prasyarat agar memahami pelajaran yang akan diberikan.

4. Present the content (menyajikan stimuli)

Menyajikan stimuli yang berkenaan dengan bahan pelajaran sehingga murid menjadi lebih siap menerima pelajaran.

5. Provide "learning guidance" (memberikan bimbingan)

Memberikan bimbingan kepada murid dalam proses belajar

6. Elicit performance /practice (pemantapan apa yang dipelajari)

Memantapkan apa yang dipelajari dengan memberikan latihan-latihan untuk menerapkan apa yang telah dipelajari itu.

7. Provide feedback (memberikan feedback)

Memberikan feedback atau balikan dengan memberitahukan kepada murid apakah hasil belajarnya benar atau tidak.

8. Assess performance (menilai hasil belajar)

Menilai hasil-belajar dengan memberikan kesempatan kepada murid untuk mengetahui apakah ia telah benar menguasai bahan pelajaran itu dengan memberikan beberapa soal.

9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job  (mengusahakan transfer)

Mengusahakan transfer dengan memberikan contoh-contoh tambahan untuk menggeneralisasi apa yang telah dipelajari itu sehingga ia dapat menggunakannya dalam situasi-situasi lain

Dalam mengajar hal di atas dapat terjadi sebagian atau semuanya, Proses belajar sendiri terjadi antara peristiwa nomor 5 dan 6. Peristiwa-peristiwa itu digerakkan dan diatur dengan perantaraan komunikasi verbal yakni guru mengatakan kepada murid apa yang harus dilakukannya

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Nasution, S., Berbagai Pendekatan dalam Proses Belajar Mengajar, Bumi Aksara, Jakarta, 2003.

Dahar, Ratna Wilis, Teori – Teori Belajar, Erlangga, Jakarta, 1989.

Maschke Kathy L., Gagne : The Condition of Learning, www.nc.gsu/~mstswh/course/it7000/papers/robert.htm.

……..,www.sru.edu/depts./education/psycholo/panaud/gagne.htm

……..,www.nova.edu/~cozart/learningtheories.htm

 

sumber : smantiara

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